Sustainable Living Guide Contributions (SCI 207: October 26, 2018)

Week One:  Sustaining Species and Biodiversity

Your Term: Deforestation

Deforestation is the destruction and removal of trees and forest. Deforestation can occur due to natural disasters such as wildfires, but the primary reason is for crops and livestock (Bensel & Turk, 2014). Tropical forests occupy only seven to ten percent of the Earth’s land, but these areas are home to approximately half of the world’s organisms. This week the material focused on one’s environmental impact demonstrated by calculating one’s carbon footprint, water usage, and energy consumption. Small choices like eating a hamburger, taking long showers, or the type of transportation one utilizes can have an environmental impact. Removal of tropical forest causes an even larger impact. While several countries have a high risk of deforestation, such as Honduras, Madagascar, and Cambodia, 48% of deforestation is occurring in Brazil, and Indonesia is at 13% (Stolle, 2008). From 2000 and 2012 the earth lost 888,000 square miles of forest (Zielinski, 2013).  Conservation efforts to save the forests are critical as deforestation is not sustainable for life.

Trees provide various benefits to humans and animals such as food, shade, and oxygen. One study reported that climbing trees makes children emotionally stronger and more resilient (Gull, Goldenstein, & Rosengarten, 2018). In the rainforest, the vegetation provides nutrients and topsoil in tropical conditions where the dirt would otherwise erode quickly and disappear. Once the forest is removed, the topsoil cannot be restored. Living trees store carbon preventing the release into the atmosphere where it creates greenhouse gases. Deforestation releases stored carbon into the atmosphere. Native species also experience a loss of their habitat and become at risk for possible endangerment. The weather patterns in tropical rain forests help cool the entire earth (Bensel & Turk, 2014). Since the loss of the rainforest impacts so many environmental systems, conservation is crucial.

Deforestation is not sustainable; therefore, other alternatives must be used.  One can reduce the number of trees chopped down by reducing paper and wood consumption. On an individual level, one can reduce the number of paper products consumed and opt to use reusable items such as using cloth napkins rather than paper towels or by using ceramic dishes versus paper plates. Also, one can sign up for digital subscriptions of magazines and newspaper instead of receiving a printed copy. Communities can adopt a county-wide recycling program which, in addition to paper and cardboard recycling, may include the collection of plastic waste also. Most deforestation occurs for livestock, so refraining from consuming animals and eating a more vegetarian diet is a solution.

Within the countries that have a high risk of deforestation, some programs have already proven effective towards conservation efforts. In Ecuador, the government offers incentives to citizens who follow set conservation guidelines (Cuenco, Robalino, Arrigada, & Echeverria, 2018). Brazil has the National Protected Areas System (SNUC) which protects the forest by regulating access and usage of the resources in the rainforests. The SNUC allocates areas of the forest for sustainable use which allows hunting and other limited use. The SNUC names the remainder of the forest as “strictly protected” where they grant access only to scientists and occasionally tourists (Jusys, 2018). Other countries facing a high deforestation risk could adopt these regulations and incentives.

References

Bensel, T., & Turk, J. (2014). Contemporary environmental issues (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu

Cuenca, P., Robalino, J., Arriagada, R., & Echeverría, C. (2018). Are government incentives effective for avoided deforestation in the tropical Andean forest? PLoS ONE, 13(9), 1–14. Retrieved from https://doi-org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/10.1371/journal.pone.0203545

Gull, C., Goldenstein, S., & Rosengarten, T. (2018). Benefits and risks of tree climbing on child development and resiliency. International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 5(2), 10-29. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1180021&site=eds-live&scope=site

Jusys, T. (2018). Changing patterns in deforestation avoidance by different protection types in the Brazilian Amazon. PLoS ONE, 13(4), 1–16. Retrieved from https://doi-org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/10.1371/journal.pone.0195900

Stolle, F. (2008) Groundbreaking study finds the “hotspots” most responsible for deforestation. World Resources Institute. Retrieved from https://www.wri.org/blog/2008/07/groundbreaking-study-finds-hotspots-most-responsible-deforestation

Zielinski, S. (2013, November 14). Hotspots of deforestation revealed in new maps. Smithsonian.com. Retrieved from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/hotspots-of-deforestation-revealed-in-new-maps-180947700/

Week Two:  Sustaining Our Agricultural Resources

Your Term: Diet Types

A diet is the food consumed by humans and animals.  Most humans are omnivores meaning they eat both meat and plants, but the standard American diet lacks the recommended daily amount of fruits and vegetables. Americans eat many foods that are high in saturated fats, sodium, and sugar. Americans consume adequate amounts of protein and grains, but the less healthy options within each category (Health.gov., 2015). An American eats an average of 270 pounds of meat annually, which is higher than most countries (Bensel & Turk, 2014). Many scientists aim to identify ways the American diet correlates to increased health problems. Lowering meat consumption could potentially prevent thousands of annual deaths from heart disease, stroke, & cancer, and lower less-severe complications with obesity and diabetes (Thomas, 2010).

Due to health, religious, or ethical reasons, some American choose a diet that consumes less animal products. Vegetarians exclude meat from their diet, while vegans extend that restriction to any products produced from animals, and there are varying degrees between both.  Occasionally extreme dietary trends become popular, such as eating only raw food, drinking only juice, or eating zero carbohydrates, but these are generally short-lived because the restrictions are not easily maintained.  What is the best diet for sustaining our agricultural resources?

Food is a necessity for survival. Globally people spend up to seventy percent of their income on food (Bensel & Turk, 2014). The planet produces enough supply of food but, “Over 840 million people in the world are chronically undernourished” (Clapp, 2014, para. 5). This is in part due to the amount of grain required to feed livestock (Bensel & Turk, 2014).  Most of the soy produced globally is used for animal feed (Thomas, 2010). Additionally, livestock production uses more land than crops in the United States; 440 million acres are used for farming, while 587 million is used for livestock (Bensel & Turk, 2014). The demand for livestock increases deforestation and puts a strain on other resources.

Replacing meat in one’s diet with plant-based nutrition does not completely resolve the sustainability issues. Farming practices need improvement. The green revolution in the sixties introduced a new wheat seed into the environment which resolved the immediate food crisis in India. Over the years, the wheat crop demanded more fertilizer, pesticides, and water. By the nineties, the wheat yields plateaued and much of the land was left unsuitable for farming (Bensel & Turk, 2014).

Monoculture is another issue that creates the potential for disaster. In a monoculture only one hearty type of plant is grown in an entire area, whereas planting several varieties of the same crop provides a safety net if one strain is destroyed and slows pesticide resistance (Bensel & Turk, 2014). The current agricultural system is insufficient to feed both humans and livestock and becomes even less sustainable as the population grows.  The world’s population is expected to reach nine billion in the next 30 to 35 years (Alsaffar, 2016).  In preparation for a growing population, more environmentally sustainable options are needed.

Individuals should make responsible dietary choices and aim for a sustainable diet. One’s diet should have a low environmental impact and promote health. The best way to have an agriculturally sustainable diet if to avoid processed food, packaged foods, meat and animal products, and eat more produce (Alsaffar, 2016).  For example, water required to produce beef is eleven times higher than the amount used to make pasta, while pasta still uses more water than plants. The carbon footprint of fruits and vegetables is thirty to fifty-five percent less than the amount of beef (Ruini et al., 2015).

Adopting a Mediterranean diet has less environmental impact than a high meat diet (Ruini et al., 2015). The Mediterranean diet food pyramid has whole grains, beans, nut, fruits, vegetables and olive oil at the base, followed by fish, poultry, dairy and eggs on the subsequent tiers. The top of the pyramid lists red meat and sugars, which would be consumed sparingly (Mediterranean, 2013).  One study concluded that bread and breakfast cereal are better, nutritious choices for the environment than eggs and meat (Kramer, et al, 2018).

Another way to raise awareness of environmental sustainability is for countries and agencies to endorse the Double Pyramid Model (photo below). The Double Pyramid allows one to make healthier dietary choices, while also choosing foods that have a lower environmental impact.

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Figure 1. The Double Pyramid Model, 5^th Edition (Ruini et al., 2015)

References

Alsaffar, A. (2016). Sustainable diets: The interaction between food industry, nutrition, health and the environment. Food Science & Technology International, 22(2), 102-111. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/doi/pdf/10.1177/1082013215572029

Bensel, T., & Turk, J. (2014). Contemporary environmental issues (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu

Clapp, J. (2014). World hunger and the global economy: Strong linkages, weak action. Journal of International Affairs, 67(2), 1-17. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=5&sid=a6466348-0d94-4338-b989-dd0d3a0d7a0c%40sdc-v-sessmgr02

Health.gov. (2015). 2015-2020 dietary guidelines. Retrieved from https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/chapter-2/

Kramer, G., Martinez, E., Espinoza-Orias, N., Cooper, K., Tyszler, M., & Blonk, H. (2018). Comparing the performance of bread and breakfast cereals, dairy, and meat in nutritionally balanced and sustainable diets. Frontiers in Nutrition, 5. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2018.00051

Mediterranean diet. (2013). Salem Press Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ers&AN=89677585&site=eds-live&scope=site

Ruini, L., Ciati, R.,  Pratesi, A., Marino,M., Vannuzzi, E.,  & Principato, L. (2015). Working towards healthy and sustainable diets: the ‘Double Pyramid Model’ developed by the Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition to raise awareness about the environmental and nutritional impact of foods. Frontiers in Nutrition, 2. https://doi-org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/10.3389/fnut.2015.00009/full

Thomas, P. (2010). Healthy planet eating. Friends of the Earth, 1-32. Retrieved from http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/healthy_planet_eating.pdf (accessed 30 April 2014).

Week Three:  Sustaining Our Water Resources

Your Term: Pharmaceuticals in the Water Supply

            Pharmaceuticals and chemical compounds are prevalent in the water supply. When a person takes a medication, their body metabolizes approximately ninety percent of the drug while the remainder is excreted as waste through sweat and urine into the environment (Boerner, 2014). Endocrine disruptors, hormones, antibiotics, and mood-altering medications are prevalent in the current water supply.  In one study, scientists collected nineteen samples from water treatment plants within the United States from 2006 and 2007 reported : atenolol (high blood pressure), carbamazepine (for epilepsy & seizures), estrone (estrogen hormone) gemfibrozil (for high cholesterol), naproxen (anti-inflammatory, over-the-counter pain reliever), phenytoin (for epilepsy & seizures), sulfamethoxazole ( an antibiotic), and trimethoprim (an antibiotic) in the water (Benotti, et al., 2008).

Water treatment plants remove around 95 to 98 percent of the pharmaceutical compounds through standard purification methods of coagulation, filtration, and chloramines, but low-levels of these compounds remain in the water supply (Boerner, 2014). While none of these medications measure at toxic levels, possible effects due to long-term exposure for wildlife or humans are not well known.  Some drugs and chemicals, called endocrine disruptors, may negatively affect and alter growth and development in humans and animals (American, n.d.). People are living longer, and the population continues to increase both increasing pharmaceuticals usage, and this has prompted scientists to look for a possible correlation between medications in the water and health conditions (American, n.d.). If medications and chemicals are polluting the water and harming animals and humans, the current, non-existent course of action is sustainable for maintaining a clean, safe water supply.

Chemicals can disrupt aquatic ecosystems.  In recent years Hawaii lawmakers placed a ban on sunscreen lotions that contain oxybenzone and actinoxate. Scientists believe these chemicals are responsible for destroying the coral reef by causing nutrient loss (Romo, 2018).  Biologist Joanna Wilson researched how the introduction of pharmaceuticals directly affects aquatic life. In the lab, Wilson tested different medications in zebrafish tanks. At medication concentrations of 0.5 to 10 micrograms per liter, the reproduction cycle of adult zebrafish decreased, and some embryos developed defects (Boerner, 2014).

Antibiotics in water sources create a significant health concern.  Antibiotics are prescribed to humans to fight off infections. Antibiotics are also given to life stock for preventative measures (Limayem & Martin, 2014, p. 124). The overuse of antibiotics creates antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which means antibiotics eventually become ineffective at killing bacteria. The bacteria then require stronger or newer antibiotics.  Scientists tested water at Taihu Lake in China over several seasons and detected twenty-three different types of antibiotics in the samples. Scientists tested the water again after a waste management facility and wetlands processed it, and some of the antibiotics remained (Hu, Bao, Hu, Liu, & Tin, 2017).  Scientists studied E. coli and antibiotics in streams that accumulate run-off from nearby livestock. The scientists concluded that the low-dose antibiotics found in the streams could increase infections in humans (Hu, Bao, Hu, Liu, & Tin, 2017). Pharmaceuticals in the water are an obstacle to sustaining water sources as overexposure may cause health issues in animals and humans.

            Scientists believe that many people still flush unused medications as was once considered the proper way to dispose of old pharmaceuticals. The Federal Drug Administration (FDA) created guidelines for medication disposal, but medication still ends up in the ecosystem (Boerner, 2014, para. 12). One way to reduce the number of pharmaceuticals is to check with one’s pharmacy or the FDA, regarding the proper way to get rid of unneeded, old medications. Another way to reduce the amount of pharmaceuticals is to make sure all medications used are necessary. Most importantly, scientists must continue researching pharmaceuticals in the water and create environmentally sustainable solutions.

References

American Rivers (n.d.) Pharmaceuticals in the water supply. AmericanRivers.org. Retrieved from https://www.americanrivers.org/threats-solutions/clean-water/pharmaceuticals-personal-care/

Benotti, M., Tenholm, R., Vanderford, B., Holady, J., Stanford, B., & Snyder, S. (2008) Pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds in the U.S. drinking water. Environmental Science and Technology, 43 (3), 597-603. Retrieved from https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es801845a

Boerner, L. (2014, May 14). The complicated question of drugs in the water. PBS.org. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/body/pharmaceuticals-in-the-water/

Hu, X. Bao, Y., Hu, J., Liu, Y, and Tin, D. (2017). Occurrence of 25 pharmaceuticals in Taihu Lake and their removal from two urban drinking water treatment plants and a constructed wetland. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24 (7), 14889-14902. DOI:10.1007/s11356-017-8830-y

Limayem, A., and Martin, E. (2014) Quantitative risk analysis for potentially resistant E. coli in surface waters caused by antibiotic use in agricultural systems. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, 49 (1), 124-133. DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2014.847220

Romo, V. (2018, May 2 ) Hawaii approved bill banning sunscreen believed to kill coral reefs. NPR.org. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/05/02/607765760/hawaii-approves-bill-banning-sunscreen-believed-to-kill-coral-reefs

Week Four:  Sustaining Our Atmosphere and Climate

Your Term: El Niño/La Niña

South American fishermen in the 19^th century noticed that on occasion the ocean water would be warmer in the wintertime. The fishermen named the phenomenon “El Niño or “The Blessed Child” (National, 2015).  Due to the Earth’s rotation and velocity, winds at the equator move east to west, causing the western US water to be cold and the ocean near South American warmer.  If the winds are weak, the warm water stays close to the South American coast (Hanson, 2015). When the water temperature increases 0.5 °C above the historical average for three months or more, scientists call this El Niño (National, 2015).

The reversed conditions create La Niña. If the trade winds are strong, the warm water is pushed westward at a faster rate. This movement pulls even colder water up in the east, dropping the ocean temperature (Hanson, 2015). La Niña causes the Western Pacific and Australia to have increased rainfall, while the Western United States and Canada experience colder than average temperatures (Gutierrez, 2017). La Niña is more common than El Niño, but neither is predictable. El Niño can occur every two to seven years, or never (Hanson, 2015). These intense cycles disturb the land, sea, and marine life, and food sources. El Niño and La Niña cycles are unpredictable, which makes the erratic weather patterns an even greater threat to sustaining Earth’s atmosphere and climate.

El Niño creates unusually severe weather and natural disasters on land. El Niño increases rainfall and flooding for both North and South America. The 1997 El Niño caused deadly mudslides in California and Peru. There was record flooding from California to Mississippi. Florida had tornados (National, 2015). Kenya reported rainfall was 40 inches above average. Mexico received 27 inches of rain in one day (Hanson, 2015). On the other side of the Pacific Ocean, Southeast Asia and Australia experienced drought and wildfires (National, 2015).  Mongolia saw temperatures of 108 °F (Hanson, 2015). These storms endanger lives, destroy homes and property, and damage crops, sometimes altering the terrain permanently.

In the ocean, El Niño threatens biodiversity. When warm water remains at the coast of South America, the cold water remains below. Marine life is then forced to migrate to colder deeper areas which cause fisheries to suffer (National, 2015).  Coral reefs also provide a habitat for fish and other marine life. Temperature changes with El Niño and La Niña can cause massive injury to that habitat. The 2015 to 2016 El Niño contributed the most significant heat stress on the reefs. When the ocean water temperature increases, the single-celled algae Symbiodinium inside the reef breaks down resulting in coral bleaching (Claar, Szostek, McDevitt-Irvin, Schanze, & Baum, 2018). Even if El Niño does not permanently destroy the reef, it can take more than a decade to recover fully (Kelmo & Attrill, 2013). If the coral reefs die, the marine animals migrate or face possible extinction.

Localized flooding, droughts, and heavy rains are always a threat to crops. The extreme weather created by El Niño and La Niña impact food resources globally. One crop affected by El Niño, or La Niña, is wheat. Wheat is a vegetable protein that makes up 20% of the world’s calories. By observing agricultural data and export trends reported before and after El Niño and La Niña events, scientists found a decrease in the wheat yield and an increase in export prices (Gutierrez, 2017).  These erratic cycles put humans, animals, the earth’s food sources, and ecosystems at risk making El Niño and La Niña an obstacle to sustaining biodiversity

While scientists have not discovered a way to prevent or predict El Niño or La Niña cycles, there are ways individuals can promote environmental sustainability and decrease the impact. Disaster preparedness is the best strategy for individuals. Those in areas at risk for drought can conserve water by taking measures to limit unnecessary usage and waste.  Homeowners can prepare for inclement weather by installing energy saver windows. In flood zones, sandbags and other items can be used to keep water from getting into one’s home. On a larger scale, scientists can continue to study the impact these storms have on agriculture and wildlife, to preserve ecosystems and biodiversity. Scientists can also continue to monitor the wind and ocean conditions at the equator and try to be aware of these changes quicker, so they can alert people in those endangered areas as quickly as possible. Preparation for the weather El Niño or La Niña brings is the best, present strategy.

References

Claar, D., Szostek, L., McDevitt-Irwin, J., Schanze, J., & Baum, J. (2018). Global patterns and impacts of El Niño events on coral reefs: A meta-analysis. Plos One, 13(2), 1-22. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=5&sid=4b650ff7-7879-4041-98e5-7c11f9ea9593%40sessionmgr4010

Gutierrez, L. (2017). Impacts of El Niño-Southern Oscillation on the wheat market: A global dynamic analysis. Plos One, 12(6), 1-22. Retrieved from https://doi-org.proxy-library.ashford.edu/10.1371/journal.pone.0179086

Hanson, J. [It’s Okay To Be Smart]. (2015, October 4). El Niño and why it’s so hard to predict the weather [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qPibjwo21g&feature=youtu.be

Kelmo, F., & Attrill, M. (2013). Severe impact and subsequent recovery of a coral assemblage following the 1997–8 El Niño event: A 17-year study from Bahia, Brazil. PLoS ONE , 8, Doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065073 23741459

Live Science. (2015). What is El Niño?. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/3650-el-nino.html

National Geographic.  [National Geographic]. (2015, December 4). El Niño 101. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6s0T0m3F8s&feature=youtu.be